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3. what are the benefits of shamanism for human society in general, according to michael harner

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Religious practise

Shamanism is a religious practise that involves a practitioner (shaman) interacting with what they believe to be a spirit world through altered states of consciousness, such as trance.[1] [two] The goal of this is unremarkably to direct spirits or spiritual energies into the concrete world for the purpose of healing, divination, or to aid man beings in some other way.[1]

Behavior and practices categorized every bit "shamanic" have attracted the interest of scholars from a multifariousness of disciplines, including anthropologists, archaeologists, historians, religious studies scholars, philosophers and psychologists. Hundreds of books and bookish papers on the field of study accept been produced, with a peer-reviewed academic journal being devoted to the study of shamanism.

In the 20th century, non-Ethnic Westerners involved in counter-cultural movements, such as hippies and the New Age created modern magico-religious practices influenced past their ideas of diverse Indigenous religions, creating what has been termed neoshamanism or the neoshamanic movement.[3] It has affected the development of many neopagan practices, also as faced a backlash and accusations of cultural appropriation,[iv] exploitation and misrepresentation when exterior observers have tried to practice the ceremonies of, or represent, cultures to which they do not belong.[5]

Terminology [edit]

Etymology [edit]

The primeval known depiction of a Siberian shaman, by the Dutch Nicolaes Witsen, 17th century. Witsen chosen him a "priest of the Devil" and drew clawed anxiety for the supposed demonic qualities.[six]

The Modernistic English word shamanism derives from the Russian discussion šamán , which itself comes from the word samān from a Tungusic language[seven] – possibly from the southwestern dialect of the Evenki spoken by the Sym Evenki peoples,[8] or from the Manchu language.[9] The etymology of the word is sometimes continued to the Tungus root sā- , pregnant "to know".[ten] [11] All the same, Juha Janhunen questions this connection on linguistic grounds: "The possibility cannot exist completely rejected, but neither should it be accepted without reservation since the assumed derivational relationship is phonologically irregular (note peculiarly the vowel quantities)."[12]

Mircea Eliade noted that the Sanskrit word śramaṇa, designating a wandering monastic or holy figure, has spread to many Key Asian languages along with Buddhism and could be the ultimate origin of the Tungusic word.[13]

The term was adopted by Russians interacting with the indigenous peoples in Siberia. It is institute in the memoirs of the exiled Russian churchman Avvakum.[14] It was brought to Western Europe 20 years later on by the Dutch traveler Nicolaes Witsen, who reported his stay and journeys among the Tungusic- and Samoyedic-speaking ethnic peoples of Siberia in his book Noord en Oost Tataryen (1692).[fifteen] Adam Make, a merchant from Lübeck, published in 1698 his account of a Russian embassy to Prc; a translation of his volume, published the aforementioned yr, introduced the give-and-take shaman to English speakers.[xvi]

Anthropologist and archaeologist Silvia Tomaskova argued that by the mid-1600s, many Europeans applied the Standard arabic term shaitan (meaning "devil") to the non-Christian practices and beliefs of indigenous peoples beyond the Ural Mountains.[17] She suggests that shaman may take entered the various Tungus dialects as a corruption of this term, and then been told to Christian missionaries, explorers, soldiers and colonial administrators with whom the people had increasing contact for centuries.

A female shaman is sometimes called a shamanka , which is not an actual Tungus term but simply shaman plus the Russian suffix -ka (for feminine nouns).[eighteen]

Definitions [edit]

There is no unmarried agreed-upon definition for the word "shamanism" amongst anthropologists. Thomas Downson suggests three shared elements of shamanism: practitioners consistently modify consciousness, the customs regards altering consciousness as an important ritual practice, and the knowledge about the do is controlled.

The English historian Ronald Hutton noted that past the dawn of the 21st century, there were iv carve up definitions of the term which appeared to be in use:

  1. The first of these uses the term to refer to "anybody who contacts a spirit globe while in an contradistinct state of consciousness."
  2. The second definition limits the term to refer to those who contact a spirit world while in an altered country of consciousness at the bidding of others.
  3. The third definition attempts to distinguish shamans from other magico-religious specialists who are believed to contact spirits, such as "mediums", "witch doctors", "spiritual healers" or "prophets," past claiming that shamans undertake some particular technique non used past the others. (Problematically, scholars advocating the third view accept failed to agree on what the defining technique should exist.)
  4. The fourth definition identified by Hutton uses "shamanism" to refer to the indigenous religions of Siberia and neighboring parts of Asia.[20] According to the Golomt Center for Shamanic Studies, a Mongolian organisation of shamans, the Evenk word shaman would more accurately exist translated as "priest".[21]

According to the Oxford English language Lexicon, a shaman ( SHAH-men, or )[22] is someone who is regarded as having admission to, and influence in, the world of benevolent and malevolent spirits, who typically enters into a trance land during a ritual, and practices divination and healing.[one] [22] The word "shaman" probably originates from the Tungusic Evenki language of N Asia. Co-ordinate to ethnolinguist Juha Janhunen, "the word is attested in all of the Tungusic idioms" such equally Negidal, Lamut, Udehe/Orochi, Nanai, Ilcha, Orok, Manchu and Ulcha, and "nothing seems to contradict the supposition that the meaning 'shaman' too derives from Proto-Tungusic" and may have roots that extend back in time at least ii millennia.[23] The term was introduced to the due west after Russian forces conquered the shamanistic Khanate of Kazan in 1552.

The term "shamanism" was beginning applied by Western anthropologists as outside observers of the aboriginal religion of the Turks and Mongols, every bit well as those of the neighbouring Tungusic- and Samoyedic-speaking peoples. Upon observing more religious traditions around the world, some Western anthropologists began to also employ the term in a very broad sense. The term was used to describe unrelated magico-religious practices found within the ethnic religions of other parts of Asia, Africa, Australasia and even completely unrelated parts of the Americas, every bit they believed these practices to be similar to i another.[24] While the term has been incorrectly applied by cultural outsiders to many indigenous spiritual practices, the words "shaman" and "shamanism" do non accurately describe the variety and complexity that is indigenous spirituality. Each Nation and tribe has its own fashion of life, and uses terms in their own languages.[25]

Mircea Eliade writes, "A first definition of this complex phenomenon, and peradventure the least hazardous, volition be: shamanism = 'technique of religious ecstasy'."[26] Shamanism encompasses the premise that shamans are intermediaries or messengers between the human world and the spirit worlds. Shamans are said to treat ailments and illnesses by mending the soul. Alleviating traumas affecting the soul or spirit are believed to restore the physical body of the individual to balance and wholeness. Shamans as well claim to enter supernatural realms or dimensions to obtain solutions to problems afflicting the customs. Shamans merits to visit other worlds or dimensions to bring guidance to misguided souls and to ameliorate illnesses of the homo soul caused by foreign elements. Shamans operate primarily within the spiritual world, which, they believe, in turn affects the human earth. The restoration of balance is said to result in the elimination of the ailment.[26]

Criticism of the term [edit]

A tableau presenting figures of diverse cultures filling in mediator-like roles, often being termed as "shaman" in the literature. The tableau presents the multifariousness of this concept.

The anthropologist Alice Kehoe criticizes the term "shaman" in her volume Shamans and Religion: An Anthropological Exploration in Critical Thinking. Part of this criticism involves the notion of cultural appropriation.[four] This includes criticism of New Historic period and modern Western forms of shamanism, which, co-ordinate to Kehoe, misrepresent or dilute ethnic practices. Kehoe also believes that the term reinforces racist ideas such equally the noble savage.

Kehoe is highly disquisitional of Mircea Eliade'southward work on shamanism as an invention synthesized from various sources unsupported by more directly research. To Kehoe, citing that ritualistic practices (well-nigh notably drumming, trance, chanting, entheogens and hallucinogens, spirit communication and healing) as existence definitive of shamanism is poor practice. Such citations ignore the fact that those practices exist outside of what is defined as shamanism and play like roles fifty-fifty in non-shamanic cultures (such as the part of chanting in rituals in Abrahamic religions) and that in their expression are unique to each civilization that uses them. Such practices cannot be generalized easily, accurately, or usefully into a global religion of shamanism. Because of this, Kehoe is also highly disquisitional of the hypothesis that shamanism is an aboriginal, unchanged, and surviving faith from the Paleolithic period.[4]

The term has been criticized[ by whom? ] for its perceived colonial roots, and as a tool to perpetuate perceived contemporary linguistic colonialism. Past Western scholars, the term "shamanism" is used to refer to a variety of different cultures and practices around the globe, which tin can vary dramatically and may not be accurately represented past a single concept. Billy-Ray Belcourt, an author and honor-winning scholar from the Driftpile Cree Nation in Canada, argues that using language with the intention of simplifying civilization that is various, such as Shamanism, as information technology is prevalent in communities around the world and is made up of many circuitous components, works to conceal the complexities of the social and political violence that indigenous communities have experienced at the hands of settlers.[27] Belcourt argues that language used to imply "simplicity" in regards to indigenous culture, is a tool used to belittle ethnic cultures, as it views indigenous communities solely equally a result of a history embroiled in violence, that leaves indigenous communities only capable of simplicity and plainness.

Anthropologist Mihály Hoppál also discusses whether the term "shamanism" is appropriate. He notes that for many readers, "-ism" implies a item dogma, like Buddhism or Judaism. He recommends using the term "shamanhood"[28] or "shamanship"[29] (a term used in old Russian and German ethnographic reports at the start of the 20th century) for stressing the diversity and the specific features of the discussed cultures. He believes that this places more stress on the local variations[10] and emphasizes that shamanism is non a religion of sacred dogmas, simply linked to the everyday life in a practical way.[30] Following similar thoughts, he also conjectures a gimmicky prototype shift.[28] Piers Vitebsky also mentions that, despite really astonishing similarities, in that location is no unity in shamanism. The various, fragmented shamanistic practices and behavior coexist with other behavior everywhere. At that place is no record of pure shamanistic societies (although their beingness is non impossible).[31] Norwegian social anthropologist Hakan Rydving has likewise argued for the abandonment of the terms "shaman" and "shamanism" every bit "scientific illusions."[32]

Dulam Bumochir has affirmed the above critiques of "shamanism" as a Western construct created for comparative purposes and, in an extensive commodity, has documented the office of Mongols themselves, specially "the partnership of scholars and shamans in the reconstruction of shamanism" in mail-1990/post-communist Mongolia.[33] This process has besides been documented past Swiss anthropologist Judith Hangartner in her landmark written report of Darhad shamans in Mongolia.[34] Historian Karena Kollmar-Polenz argues that the social construction and reification of shamanism as a religious "other" actually began with the 18th-century writings of Tibetan Buddhist monks in Mongolia and later "probably influenced the germination of European discourse on Shamanism".[35]

History [edit]

Shamanism is a system of religious practice.[36] Historically, it is often associated with ethnic and tribal societies, and involves conventionalities that shamans, with a connexion to the otherworld, have the power to heal the sick, communicate with spirits, and escort souls of the dead to the afterlife. The origins of Shamanism stem from Northern Europe and parts of Northern Asia.[37]

Despite structural implications of colonialism and imperialism that have limited the ability of indigenous peoples to practice traditional spiritualities, many communities are undergoing resurgence through self-determination[38] and the reclamation of dynamic traditions.[39] Other groups take been able to avoid some of these structural impediments by virtue of their isolation, such as the nomadic Tuvan (with an estimated population of 3000 people surviving from this tribe).[forty] Tuva is i of the most isolated tribes in Russia where the art of shamanism has been preserved until today due to its isolated beingness, assuasive information technology to be free from the influences of other major religions.[41]

Beliefs [edit]

In that location are many variations of shamanism throughout the earth, merely several common behavior are shared by all forms of shamanism. Common beliefs identified by Eliade (1972)[26] are the following:

  • Spirits be and they play important roles both in individual lives and in man social club
  • The shaman can communicate with the spirit world
  • Spirits can exist benevolent or malevolent
  • The shaman can treat sickness acquired past malevolent spirits
  • The shaman tin can apply trances inducing techniques to incite visionary ecstasy and go along vision quests
  • The shaman'south spirit can exit the body to enter the supernatural world to search for answers
  • The shaman evokes animal images as spirit guides, omens, and message-bearers
  • The shaman tin can perform other varied forms of divination, scry, throw basic or runes, and sometimes foretell of future events

Equally Alice Kehoe[4] notes, Eliade's conceptualization of shamans produces a universalist image of indigenous cultures, which perpetuates notions of the dead (or dying) Indian[42] as well as the noble savage.[43]

Shamanism is based on the premise that the visible world is pervaded by invisible forces or spirits which affect the lives of the living.[44] Although the causes of disease lie in the spiritual realm, inspired past malicious spirits, both spiritual and physical methods are used to heal. Commonly, a shaman "enters the torso" of the patient to face the spiritual infirmity and heals past banishing the infectious spirit.

Many shamans have practiced noesis of medicinal plants native to their area, and an herbal treatment is frequently prescribed. In many places shamans acquire directly from the plants, harnessing their furnishings and healing backdrop, after obtaining permission from the indwelling or patron spirits. In the Peruvian Amazon Basin, shamans and curanderos apply medicine songs chosen icaros to evoke spirits. Before a spirit tin can exist summoned information technology must teach the shaman its vocal.[44] The use of totemic items such as rocks with special powers and an animating spirit is common.

Such practices are presumably very ancient. Plato wrote in his Phaedrus that the "first prophecies were the words of an oak", and that those who lived at that time establish it rewarding enough to "listen to an oak or a rock, so long every bit it was telling the truth".

Belief in witchcraft and sorcery, known as brujería in Latin America, exists in many societies. Other societies assert all shamans have the power to both cure and kill. Those with shamanic knowledge usually enjoy great power and prestige in the community, but they may also be regarded suspiciously or fearfully as potentially harmful to others.[45]

By engaging in their piece of work, a shaman is exposed to meaning personal risk as shamanic institute materials can be toxic or fatal if misused. Spells are ordinarily used in an attempt to protect confronting these dangers, and the use of more unsafe plants is oftentimes very highly ritualized.

Soul and spirit concepts [edit]

Soul
Soul can by and large explicate more, seemingly unassociated phenomena in shamanism:[46] [47] [48]
Healing
Healing may be based closely on the soul concepts of the belief system of the people served by the shaman.[49] It may consist of the supposed retrieving the lost soul of the ill person.[50]
Scarcity of hunted game
Scarcity of hunted game can be solved by "releasing" the souls of the animals from their hidden abodes. Besides that, many taboos may prescribe the behavior of people towards game, so that the souls of the animals do non feel angry or hurt, or the pleased soul of the already killed prey can tell the other, withal living animals, that they tin permit themselves to be caught and killed.[51] [52]
Infertility of women
Infertility of women is thought to be cured by obtaining the soul of the expected child[ commendation needed ]
Spirits
Spirits are invisible entities that only shamans tin can run into. They are seen as persons that tin can assume a homo or animal trunk.[53] Some animals in their physical forms are also seen as spirits such as the case of the eagle, serpent, jaguar, and rat.[53] Beliefs related to spirits can explain many dissimilar phenomena.[54] For example, the importance of storytelling, or acting as a singer, can be understood amend if the whole belief organisation is examined. A person who can memorize long texts or songs, and play an instrument, may exist regarded as the casher of contact with the spirits (e.one thousand. Khanty people).[55]

Do [edit]

Generally, shamans traverse the axis mundi and enter the "spirit world" past effecting a transition of consciousness, entering into an ecstatic trance, either autohypnotically or through the use of entheogens or ritual performances.[56] [57] The methods employed are various, and are often used together.

Entheogens [edit]

text

An entheogen ("generating the divine within")[60] is a psychoactive substance used in a religious, shamanic, or spiritual context.[61] Entheogens have been used in a ritualized context, in a number of dissimilar cultures, peradventure for thousands of years. Examples of substances used by some cultures as entheogens include: peyote,[62] psilocybin and Amanita muscaria (wing agaric) mushrooms,[63] uncured tobacco,[64] cannabis,[65] ayahuasca,[66] Salvia divinorum,[67] and iboga.[68]

Entheogens besides have a substantial history of commodification, especially in the realm of spiritual tourism. For example, countries such as Brazil and Republic of peru have faced an influx of tourists since the psychedelic era showtime in the belatedly 1960s, initiating what has been termed "ayahuasca tourism."[69]

Music and songs [edit]

Just like shamanism itself,[x] music and songs related to it in various cultures are diverse. In several instances, songs related to shamanism are intended to imitate natural sounds, via onomatopoeia.[70]

Sound mimesis in various cultures may serve other functions not necessarily related to shamanism: practical goals such equally luring game in the hunt;[71] or entertainment (Inuit pharynx singing).[71] [72]

Initiation and learning [edit]

Shamans often claim to accept been called through dreams or signs. However, some say their powers are inherited. In traditional societies shamanic training varies in length, but generally takes years.

Turner and colleagues[73] mention a phenomenon called "shamanistic initiatory crisis", a rite of passage for shamanshoped-for, commonly involving physical disease or psychological crisis. The significant role of initiatory illnesses in the calling of a shaman can be institute in the case history of Chuonnasuan, who was one of the last shamans among the Tungus peoples in Northeast People's republic of china.[74]

The wounded healer is an classic for a shamanic trial and journeying. This process is important to immature shamans. They undergo a type of sickness that pushes them to the brink of decease. This is said to happen for two reasons:

  • The shaman crosses over to the underworld. This happens so the shaman can venture to its depths to bring back vital information for the ill and the tribe.
  • The shaman must become ill to understand sickness. When the shaman overcomes their ain sickness, they believe that they volition hold the cure to heal all that suffer.[75]

Other practices [edit]

  • Ecstatic dancing
  • Icaros / medicine songs[44]
  • Vigils
  • Fasting
  • Mariri
  • Ayahuasca ceremonies

Items used in spiritual practise [edit]

Shamans may use varying materials in spiritual practice in different cultures.

  • Drums – The drum is used past shamans of several peoples in Siberia.[76] [77] The beating of the pulsate allows the shaman to achieve an contradistinct state of consciousness or to travel on a journey between the concrete and spiritual worlds. Much fascination surrounds the part that the acoustics of the drum play to the shaman. Shaman drums are generally synthetic of an animal-peel stretched over a bent wooden hoop, with a handle across the hoop.

Roles [edit]

Though the importance of spiritual roles in many cultures cannot be overlooked, the degree to which such roles are comparable (and fifty-fifty classifiable under i term) is questionable. In fact, scholars have argued that such universalist classifications paint indigenous societies every bit primitive while exemplifying the civility of Western societies.[79] [33] That being said, shamans have been conceptualized as those who are able to proceeds knowledge and power to heal in the spiritual world or dimension. Virtually shamans have dreams or visions that convey certain messages. Shamans may claim to have or take acquired many spirit guides, who they believe guide and direct them in their travels in the spirit world. These spirit guides are e'er thought to be present within the shaman, although others are said to run into them only when the shaman is in a trance. The spirit guide energizes the shamans, enabling them to enter the spiritual dimension. Shamans claim to heal within the communities and the spiritual dimension past returning lost parts of the human soul from wherever they have gone. Shamans too claim to cleanse backlog negative energies, which are said to misfile or pollute the soul. Shamans act as mediators in their cultures.[fourscore] [81] Shamans merits to communicate with the spirits on behalf of the community, including the spirits of the deceased. Shamans believe they can communicate with both living and dead to alleviate unrest, unsettled issues, and to evangelize gifts to the spirits.

Among the Selkups, the sea duck is a spirit animal. Ducks wing in the air and swoop in the h2o and are thus believed to belong to both the upper world and the world beneath.[82] Amidst other Siberian peoples, these characteristics are attributed to waterfowl in general.[83] The upper globe is the afterlife primarily associated with deceased humans and is believed to be accessed by soul journeying through a portal in the sky. The lower globe or "world below" is the afterlife primarily associated with animals and is believed to be accessed past soul journey through a portal in the earth.[84] In shamanic cultures, many animals are regarded every bit spirit animals.

Shamans perform a variety of functions depending upon their respective cultures;[85] healing,[49] [86] leading a sacrifice,[87] preserving traditions by storytelling and songs,[88] fortune-telling,[89] and acting as a psychopomp ("guide of souls").[xc] A single shaman may fulfill several of these functions.[85]

The functions of a shaman may include either guiding to their proper home the souls of the expressionless (which may be guided either one-at-a-fourth dimension or in a group, depending on the culture), and the curing of ailments. The ailments may be either purely physical afflictions—such equally disease, which are claimed to be cured by gifting, flattering, threatening, or wrestling the disease-spirit (sometimes trying all these, sequentially), and which may exist completed by displaying a supposedly extracted token of the illness-spirit (displaying this, even if "fraudulent", is supposed to impress the disease-spirit that it has been, or is in the process of being, defeated so that it will retreat and stay out of the patient's body), or else mental (including psychosomatic) afflictions—such as persistent terror, which is likewise believed to be cured by similar methods. In most languages a dissimilar term other than the one translated "shaman" is normally applied to a religious official leading sacrificial rites ("priest"), or to a raconteur ("sage") of traditional lore; there may be more of an overlap in functions (with that of a shaman), however, in the example of an interpreter of omens or of dreams.

At that place are distinct types of shamans who perform more specialized functions. For instance, among the Nani people, a distinct kind of shaman acts as a psychopomp.[91] Other specialized shamans may be distinguished according to the type of spirits, or realms of the spirit globe, with which the shaman most usually interacts. These roles vary among the Nenets, Enets, and Selkup shamans.[92] [93]

The assistant of an Oroqen shaman (called jardalanin, or "2d spirit") knows many things virtually the associated beliefs. He or she accompanies the rituals and interprets the behaviors of the shaman.[94] Despite these functions, the jardalanin is not a shaman. For this interpretative assistant, it would exist unwelcome to fall into a trance.[95]

Ecological aspect [edit]

Among the Tucano people, a sophisticated system exists for environmental resources direction and for avoiding resource depletion through overhunting. This system is conceptualized mythologically and symbolically past the conventionalities that breaking hunting restrictions may cause illness. As the master instructor of tribal symbolism, the shaman may have a leading office in this ecological direction, actively restricting hunting and fishing. The shaman is able to "release" game animals, or their souls, from their hidden abodes.[96] [97] The Piaroa people have ecological concerns related to shamanism.[98] Among the Inuit, shamans fetch the souls of game from remote places,[99] [100] or soul travel to enquire for game from mythological beings like the Sea Adult female.[101]

Economics [edit]

The way shamans become sustenance and accept part in everyday life varies beyond cultures. In many Inuit groups, they provide services for the customs and get a "due payment",[ who? ] and believe the payment is given to the helping spirits.[102] An account states that the gifts and payments that a shaman receives are given past his partner spirit. Since it obliges the shaman to utilize his gift and to work regularly in this capacity, the spirit rewards him with the goods that it receives.[103] These goods, however, are only "welcome addenda". They are not enough to enable a full-time shaman. Shamans live like whatever other member of the grouping, equally a hunter or housewife. Due to the popularity of ayahuasca tourism in S America, there are practitioners in areas frequented by backpackers who make a living from leading ceremonies.[104] [102]

Academic study [edit]

Cognitive and evolutionary approaches [edit]

There are 2 major frameworks among cognitive and evolutionary scientists for explaining shamanism. The first, proposed past anthropologist Michael Winkelman, is known as the "neurotheological theory".[105] [106] Co-ordinate to Winkelman, shamanism develops reliably in human societies because information technology provides valuable benefits to the practitioner, their group, and individual clients. In detail, the trance states induced past dancing, hallucinogens, and other triggers are hypothesized to take an "integrative" effect on cognition, allowing advice amongst mental systems that specialize in theory of heed, social intelligence, and natural history.[107] With this cognitive integration, the shaman can better predict the movement of animals, resolve grouping conflicts, program migrations, and provide other useful services.

The neurotheological theory contrasts with the "by-production" or "subjective" model of shamanism adult by Harvard anthropologist Manvir Singh.[1] [108] [109] According to Singh, shamanism is a cultural technology that adapts to (or hacks) our psychological biases to convince u.s.a. that a specialist can influence of import but uncontrollable outcomes.[110] Citing work on the psychology of magic and superstition, Singh argues that humans search for ways of influencing uncertain events, such as healing illness, controlling rain, or alluring animals. As specialists compete to assistance their clients control these outcomes, they drive the development of psychologically compelling magic, producing traditions adapted to people's cognitive biases. Shamanism, Singh argues, is the culmination of this cultural evolutionary process—a psychologically appealing method for controlling uncertainty. For example, some shamanic practices exploit our intuitions near humanness: Practitioners utilise trance and dramatic initiations to seemingly become entities distinct from normal humans and thus more apparently capable of interacting with the invisible forces believed to oversee of import outcomes. Influential cognitive and anthropological scientists such equally Pascal Boyer and Nicholas Humphrey have endorsed Singh's approach,[111] [112] although other researchers have criticized Singh'due south dismissal of individual- and group-level benefits.[113]

David Lewis-Williams explains the origins of shamanic practice, and some of its precise forms, through aspects of human consciousness evinced in cavern art and LSD experiments alike.[114]

Ecological approaches and systems theory [edit]

Gerardo Reichel-Dolmatoff relates these concepts to developments in the ways that mod science (systems theory, ecology, new approaches in anthropology and archeology) treats causality in a less linear fashion.[96] He also suggests a cooperation of modernistic scientific discipline and indigenous lore.[115]

Historical origins [edit]

Shamanic practices may originate as early as the Paleolithic, predating all organized religions,[116] [117] and certainly as early as the Neolithic period.[117] The earliest known undisputed burying of a shaman (and by extension the primeval undisputed prove of shamans and shamanic practices) dates back to the early on Upper Paleolithic era (c. 30,000 BP) in what is at present the Czech Republic.[118]

Sanskrit scholar and comparative mythologist Michael Witzel proposes that all of the world's mythologies, and also the concepts and practices of shamans, can be traced to the migrations of ii prehistoric populations: the "Gondwana" type (of circa 65,000 years ago) and the "Laurasian" type (of circa 40,000 years ago).[119]

In November 2008, researchers from the Hebrew Academy of Jerusalem announced the discovery of a 12,000-year-old site in State of israel that is perceived as 1 of the earliest-known shaman burials. The elderly woman had been bundled on her side, with her legs apart and folded inwards at the knee. Ten large stones were placed on the caput, pelvis, and arms. Amid her unusual grave appurtenances were 50 consummate tortoise shells, a human foot, and certain body parts from animals such as a cow tail and eagle wings. Other brute remains came from a boar, leopard, and two martens. "It seems that the woman … was perceived equally being in a close relationship with these animal spirits", researchers noted. The grave was 1 of at least 28 graves at the site, located in a cave in lower Galilee and belonging to the Natufian culture, but is said to be unlike whatever other among the Epipaleolithic Natufians or in the Paleolithic period.[120]

Semiotic and hermeneutic approaches [edit]

A debated etymology of the word "shaman" is "one who knows",[11] [121] implying, among other things, that the shaman is an expert in keeping together the multiple codes of the guild, and that to be effective, shamans must maintain a comprehensive view in their listen which gives them certainty of cognition.[10] According to this view, the shaman uses (and the audience understands) multiple codes, expressing meanings in many ways: verbally, musically, artistically, and in dance. Meanings may be manifested in objects such every bit amulets.[121] If the shaman knows the culture of their community well,[81] [122] [123] and acts accordingly, their audience will know the used symbols and meanings and therefore trust the shamanic worker.[123] [124]

There are also semiotic, theoretical approaches to shamanism,[125] [126] [127] and examples of "mutually opposing symbols" in academic studies of Siberian lore, distinguishing a "white" shaman who contacts sky spirits for proficient aims by solar day, from a "blackness" shaman who contacts evil spirits for bad aims by night.[128] (Serial of such opposing symbols referred to a world-view behind them. Analogously to the way grammar arranges words to express meanings and convey a world, also this formed a cognitive map).[10] [129] Shaman's lore is rooted in the folklore of the community, which provides a "mythological mental map".[130] [131] Juha Pentikäinen uses the concept "grammar of mind".[131] [132]

Armin Geertz coined and introduced the hermeneutics,[133] or "ethnohermeneutics",[129] estimation. Hoppál extended the term to include not only the interpretation of oral and written texts, but that of "visual texts every bit well (including motions, gestures and more than circuitous rituals, and ceremonies performed, for case, by shamans)".[134] Revealing the animistic views in shamanism, but also their relevance to the contemporary world, where ecological problems have validated paradigms of balance and protection.[131]

Reject and revitalization and tradition-preserving movements [edit]

Traditional, Indigenous shamanism is believed to be declining around the world. Whalers who frequently interact with Inuit tribes are i source of this decline in that region.[135]

A shaman physician of Kyzyl, 2005. Attempts are being made to preserve and revitalize Tuvan shamanism:[136] former accurate shamans have begun to do again, and young apprentices are beingness educated in an organized way.[137]

In many areas, former shamans ceased to fulfill the functions in the community they used to, as they felt mocked by their own community,[138] or regarded their own past as deprecated and were unwilling to talk near it to ethnographers.[139]

As well personal communications of former shamans, sociology texts may characterize straight most a deterioration procedure. For example, a Buryat epic text details the wonderful deeds of the aboriginal "first shaman" Kara-Gürgän:[140] he could even compete with God, create life, steal back the soul of the sick from God without his consent. A subsequent text laments that shamans of older times were stronger, possessing capabilities like omnividence,[141] fortune-telling even for decades in the future, moving every bit fast as a bullet.[142]

In most afflicted areas, shamanic practices ceased to exist, with authentic shamans dying and their personal experiences dying with them. The loss of memories is not always lessened by the fact the shaman is not always the only person in a community who knows the beliefs and motives related to the local shaman-hood.[94] [95] Although the shaman is frequently believed and trusted precisely because they "adjust" to the behavior of the community,[123] several parts of the noesis related to the local shamanhood consist of personal experiences of the shaman, or root in their family life,[143] thus, those are lost with their death. Besides that, in many cultures, the unabridged traditional belief organisation has become endangered (often together with a fractional or total language shift), with the other people of the community remembering the associated beliefs and practices (or the language at all) grew old or died, many sociology memories songs, and texts were forgotten—which may threaten even such peoples who could preserve their isolation until the middle of the 20th century, similar the Nganasan.[144]

Some areas could enjoy a prolonged resistance due to their remoteness.

  • Variants of shamanism among Inuit peoples were once a widespread (and very diverse) phenomenon, but today is rarely skillful, as well as already having been in decline among many groups, even while the first major ethnological inquiry was being done,[145] e.1000. among Polar Inuit, at the end of the 19th century, Sagloq, the concluding shaman who was believed to exist able to travel to the sky and under the sea died—and many other former shamanic capacities were lost during that fourth dimension as well, similar ventriloquism and sleight of hand.[146]
  • The isolated location of Nganasan people allowed shamanism to be a living phenomenon among them even at the first of the 20th century,[147] the last notable Nganasan shaman's ceremonies were recorded on film in the 1970s.[148]

After exemplifying the full general decline even in the most remote areas, there are revitalizations or tradition-preserving efforts equally a response. Besides collecting the memories,[149] there are also tradition-preserving[150] and even revitalization efforts,[151] led by accurate onetime shamans (for instance amid the Sakha people[152] and Tuvans).[137]

Native Americans in the United States do not call their traditional spiritual means "shamanism". However, co-ordinate to Richard 50. Allen, research and policy analyst for the Cherokee Nation, they are regularly overwhelmed with inquiries by and about fraudulent shamans, aka ("plastic medicine people").[153] He adds, "1 may assume that anyone claiming to be a Cherokee 'shaman, spiritual healer, or pipe-carrier', is equivalent to a modern day medicine prove and snake-oil vendor."[154]

There are as well neoshamanistic movements, which usually differ from traditional shamanistic practice and beliefs in pregnant ways, and oft take more connectedness to the New Historic period communities than traditional cultures.[155]

Regional variations [edit]

See also [edit]

  • Divine madness
  • Dukun
  • Fashi
  • Folk healer
  • Folk magic
  • Itako
  • Neuroanthropology
  • Neurotheology
  • Pawang
  • Plastic shaman
  • Prehistoric medicine
  • Reincarnation (Ho-Chunk)
  • Seiðr
  • Shaman King
  • Soul catcher
  • Spirit spouse
  • Tangki
  • Tlamatini
  • Zduhać

References [edit]

Citations [edit]

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  2. ^ Mircea Eliade; Vilmos Diószegi (May 12, 2020). "Shamanism". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved May 20, 2020. Shamanism, religious miracle centred on the shaman, a person believed to accomplish various powers through trance or ecstatic religious experience. Although shamans' repertoires vary from one culture to the adjacent, they are typically thought to have the power to heal the sick, to communicate with the otherworld, and often to escort the souls of the dead to that otherworld.
  3. ^ Gredig, Florian (2009). Finding New Cosmologies. Berlin: Lit Verlag Dr. W. Hopf.
  4. ^ a b c d Kehoe, Alice Beck (2000). Shamans and faith : an anthropological exploration in critical thinking. Prospect Heights, Ill.: Waveland Printing. ISBN978-1-57766-162-7.
  5. ^ Wernitznig, Dagmar, Europe'south Indians, Indians in Europe: European Perceptions and Appropriations of Native American Cultures from Pocahontas to the Present. Academy Press of America, 2007: p.132. "What happens further in the Plastic Shaman's [fictitious] story is highly irritating from a perspective of cultural hegemony. The Injun elder does not only willingly share their spirituality with the white intruder but, in fact, must come to the determination that this intruder is as good an Indian as they are themselves. Regarding Indian spirituality, the Plastic Shaman even out-Indians the actual ones. The messianic element, which Plastic Shamanism financially draws on, is installed in the Yoda-like elder themselves. They are the ones - while melodramatically departing from their spiritual offshoot - who urge the Plastic Shaman to share their gift with the residual of the earth. Thus Plastic Shamans wipe their easily make clean of whatsoever megalomaniac or missionizing undertones. Licensed past the dominance of an Indian elder, they now have every right to spread their wisdom, and if they brand (quite more than) a buck with it, then so be it.--The neocolonial ideology attached to this scenario leaves less room for cynicism."}}
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  • Hoppál, Mihály (2005). Sámánok Eurázsiában (in Hungarian). Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó. ISBN978-963-05-8295-seven. The title means "Shamans in Eurasia", the volume is published as well in German, Estonian and Finnish. Site of publisher with curt clarification on the book (in Hungarian).
  • Hoppál, Mihály (2006a). "Sámánok, kultúrák és kutatók az ezredfordulón". In Hoppál, Mihály; Szathmári, Botond; Takács, András (eds.). Sámánok és kultúrák. Budapest: Gondolat. pp. 9–25. ISBN978-963-9450-28-viii. The chapter title means "Shamans, cultures and researchers in the millenary", the volume title means "Shamans and cultures".
  • Hoppál, Mihály (2007b). "Is Shamanism a Folk Religion?". Shamans and Traditions (Vol. 13). Bibliotheca Shamanistica. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó. pp. 11–16. ISBN978-963-05-8521-7.
  • Hoppál, Mihály (2007c). "Eco-Animism of Siberian Shamanhood". Shamans and Traditions (Vol 13). Bibliotheca Shamanistica. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó. pp. 17–26. ISBN978-963-05-8521-7.
  • Janhunen, Juha. Siberian shamanistic terminology. Mémoires de la Société Finno-Ougrienne, 1986, 194: 97–117.
  • Hugh-Jones, Christine (1980). From the Milk River: Spatial and Temporal Processes in Northwest Amazonia . Cambridge Studies in Social and Cultural Anthropology. Cambridge University Press. ISBN978-0-521-22544-ane.
  • Hugh-Jones, Stephen (1980). The Palm and the Pleiades. Initiation and Cosmology in Northwest Amazonia . Cambridge Studies in Social and Cultural Anthropology. Cambridge Academy Press. ISBN978-0-521-21952-five.
  • Kleivan, Inge; B. Sonne (1985). Eskimos: Greenland and Canada. Iconography of religions, section VIII, "Arctic Peoples", fascicle 2. Leiden, The Netherlands: Constitute of Religious Iconography • Country University Groningen. E.J. Brill. ISBN978-xc-04-07160-5.
  • Menovščikov, G.A. (= Г. А. Меновщиков) (1968). "Popular Conceptions, Religious Beliefs and Rites of the Asiatic Eskimoes". In Diószegi, Vilmos (ed.). Pop beliefs and folklore tradition in Siberia. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó.
  • Nagy, Beáta Boglárka (1998). "Az északi szamojédok". In Csepregi, Márta (ed.). Finnugor kalauz. Panoráma (in Hungarian). Budapest: Medicina Könyvkiadó. pp. 221–34. ISBN978-963-243-813-ix. The chapter ways "Northern Samoyedic peoples", the title means Finno-Ugric guide.
  • Nattiez, Jean Jacques. Inuit Games and Songs / Chants et Jeux des Inuit. Musiques & musiciens du monde / Musics & musicians of the world. Montreal: Research Group in Musical Semiotics, Faculty of Music, University of Montreal. . The songs are available online, on the ethnopoetics website curated past Jerome Rothenberg.
  • Noll, Richard; Shi, Kun (2004). "Chuonnasuan (Meng Jin Fu), The Last Shaman of the Oroqen of Northeast People's republic of china" (PDF). 韓國宗敎硏究 (Journal of Korean Religions). Vol. 6. Seoul KR: 西江大學校. 宗教硏究所 (Sŏgang Taehakkyo. Chonggyo Yŏnʾguso.). pp. 135–62. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-03-26. Retrieved 2020-05-28 . . It describes the life of Chuonnasuan, the final shaman of the Oroqen of Northeast Communist china.
  • Reinhard, Johan (1976) "Shamanism and Spirit Possession: The Definition Problem." In Spirit Possession in the Nepal Himalayas, J. Hitchcock & R. Jones (eds.), New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, pp. 12–20.
  • Shimamura, Ippei The roots Seekers: Shamanism and Ethnicity Among the Mongol Buryats. Yokohama, Japan: Shumpusha, 2014.
  • Singh, Manvir (2018). "The cultural evolution of shamanism". Behavioral & Brain Sciences. 41: e66, i–61. doi:10.1017/S0140525X17001893. PMID 28679454. S2CID 206264885. Summary of the cultural evolutionary and cognitive foundations of shamanism; published with commentaries past 25 scholars (including anthropologists, philosophers, and psychologists).
  • Turner, Robert P.; Lukoff, David; Barnhouse, Ruth Tiffany & Lu, Francis G. (1995) Religious or Spiritual Problem. A Culturally Sensitive Diagnostic Category in the DSM-IV. Periodical of Nervous and Mental Disease, Vol.183, No. 7, pp. 435–44
  • Voigt, Miklós (2000). "Sámán – a szó és értelme". Világnak kezdetétől fogva. Történeti folklorisztikai tanulmányok (in Hungarian). Budapest: Universitas Könyvkiadó. pp. 41–45. ISBN978-963-9104-39-half-dozen. The chapter discusses the etymology and significant of word "shaman".
  • Winkelman, Michael (2000). Shamanism: The neural ecology of consciousness and healing. Westport, CT: Bergen & Gavey. ISBN978-963-9104-39-6. Major work on the evolutionary and psychological origins of shamanism.
  • Witzel, Michael (2011). "Shamanism in Northern and Southern Eurasia: their distinctive methods and modify of consciousness" (PDF). Social Science Data. 50 (1): 39–61. doi:10.1177/0539018410391044. S2CID 144745844.

Further reading [edit]

  • Joseph Campbell, The Masks of God: Primitive Mythology. 1959; reprint, New York and London: Penguin Books, 1976. ISBN 978-0-14-019443-2
  • Harner, Michael, The Style of the Shaman: A Guide to Power and Healing, Harper & Row Publishers, NY 1980
  • Richard de Mille, ed. The Don Juan Papers: Further Castaneda Controversies. Santa Barbara, California: Ross-Erikson, 1980.
  • George Devereux, "Shamans as Neurotics", American Anthropologist, New Series, Vol. 63, No. 5, Part 1. (Oct. 1961), pp. 1088–90.
  • Jay Courtney Fikes, Carlos Castaneda: Academic Opportunism and the Psychedelic Sixties, Millennia Press, Canada, 1993 ISBN 978-0-9696960-0-i
  • Åke Hultkrantz (Honorary Editor in Chief): Shaman. Journal of the International Society for Shamanistic Research
  • Philip Jenkins, Dream Catchers: How Mainstream America Discovered Native Spirituality. New York: Oxford Academy Press, 2004. ISBN 978-0-19-516115-one
  • Alice Kehoe, Shamans and Religion: An Anthropological Exploration in Disquisitional Thinking. 2000. London: Waveland Press. ISBN 978-1-57766-162-seven
  • David Charles Manners, In the Shadow of Crows. (contains first-manus accounts of the Nepalese jhankri tradition) Oxford: Indicate Books, 2011. ISBN 978-1-904955-92-4.
  • Jordan D. Paper, The Spirits are Drunk: Comparative Approaches to Chinese Religion, Albany, New York: State University of New York Press, 1995. ISBN 978-0-7914-2315-8.
  • Smith, Frederick One thousand. (2006). The Self Possessed: Deity and Spirit Possession in Southward Asian Literature. Columbia University Press, ISBN 978-0-231-13748-five. pp. 195–202.
  • Barbara Tedlock, Time and the Highland Maya, U. of New Mexico Press, 1992. ISBN 978-0-8263-1358-4
  • Silvia Tomášková, Wayward Shamans: the prehistory of an thought, University of California Press, 2013. ISBN 978-0-520-27532-4
  • Michel Weber, « Shamanism and proto-consciousness », in René Lebrun, Julien De Vos et É. Van Quickelberghe (éds), Deus Unicus. Actes du colloque « Aux origines du monothéisme et du scepticisme religieux » organisé à Louvain-la-Neuve les 7 et 8 juin 2013 par le Centre d'histoire des Religions Fundamental Julien Ries [Cardinalis Julien Ries et Pierre Bordreuil in memoriam], Turnhout, Brepols, coll. Homo Religiosus série II, xiv, 2015, pp. 247–sixty.
  • Andrei Znamenski, Shamanism in Siberia: Russian Records of Siberian Spirituality. Dordrech and Boston: Kluwer/Springer, 2003. ISBN 978-1-4020-1740-vii
  • Andrei Znamenski,The Beauty of the Primitive: Shamanism and Western Imagination. New York: Oxford University Press, 2007. ISBN 978-0-1951-7231-7

External links [edit]

  • AFECT A charitable organization protecting traditional cultures in northern Thailand
  • Chuonnasuan (Meng Jin Fu), The Last Shaman of the Oroqen of Northeast Prc, past Richard Noll and Kun Shi (Internet Archive re-create from
  • New Age Frauds and Plastic Shamans, an organization devoted to alerting seekers most fraudulent teachers, and helping them avoid being exploited or participating in exploitation
  • Shamanic Healing Rituals by Tatyana Sem, Russian Museum of Ethnography
  • Shamanism and the Paradigm of the Teutonic Deity, Óðinn by A. Asbjorn Jon
  • Shamanism in Siberia – photographs by Standa Krupar
  • Studies in Siberian Shamanism and Religions of the Finno-Ugrian Peoples by Aado Lintrop, Folk Conventionalities and Media Group of the Estonian Literary Museum
  • A View from the Headwaters by Gerardo Reichel-Dolmatoff Amazonian indigenous oeoples and ecology
  • Samgaldai NGO – A charitable, non-for-profit NGO for preserving Mongolian traditional Shamanic practices and rituals, operating in Mongolia.

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shamanism

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